Concrete shrinkage: current concepts, measurement methods, and standard models

Introduction. Concrete shrinkage is a key factor in the durability and crack resistance of reinforced concrete structures. Despite many years of research, issues of quantitative prediction and assessment of shrinkage cracking remain relevant, especially given the construction industry’s transition to low-water-cement ratio concrete and the extensive use of superplasticizers.

Aim. To summarize current understanding of the mechanisms, types, and methods of measuring concrete shrinkage, critically analyze regulatory testing procedures, and identify areas for improving calculation models. Materials and Methods. An analytical review of domestic and international publications from 1975 to 2025 was conducted, including an analysis of domestic standards (GOST 24544–2020, SP 63.13330, etc.) and international regulations (ModelCode 2010, ACI209R 22). Comparative analytical and systematic methods were used, supplemented by a summary of experimental data from research groups, including results from 2 022 to 2025.

Results. A fundamental duality in the nature of shrinkage was revealed: autogenous, caused by self-compression of the hydrating cement stone, and drying, caused by moisture migration. It was shown that at water-cement ratios  0.35, the autogenous component reaches 55–65 % of the total shrinkage by the 28th day, and its rate is proportional to the specific surface area of the cement. The role of moisture and temperature gradients in creating uneven stress states is examined, and the need for a comprehensive accounting of shrinkage and creep in one-dimensional stiffness models is substantiated. Laboratory and field methods (contact, non-contact, and interferometric) are systematized, and their metrological limitations are  demonstrated.

Conclusions. Modern design practice requires a transition from limiting standard values to predictive models that take into account the actual moisture-thermal state of a structure and concrete formulation. The integration of sensor systems for online deformation monitoring and the validation of calculated shrinkage curves for high-strength and composite concretes offer promising prospects. 

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